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JUXTAPOSITION OF WESTERN, ORIENTAL AND AFRICAN 

METAPHYSICAL ORIENTATIONS 

Gabriel ASUQUO 

ABSTRACT  

The aim of this paper is to trace the metaphysical orientations of western, oriental, and 

African traditions and how they inform their development and progress. Metaphysical 

orientation is the sum total of metaphysical doctrines that form the foundational 

assumption about reality. Metaphysical orientations makes explicit the way a tradition 

grasps and conceptualizes being. The paper discovers that the metaphysical orientations 

of the western tradition is dualistic in outlook, while the oriental is monistic, and African 

is complementarity (or duality). Though metaphysical orientations are what provide the 

foundation for the epistemology, ethics and socio-political arrangements of the various 

intellectual traditions and civilizations we studied. Nonetheless, in Africa it is not the 

case, due to web of complex historical and existential issues. Therefore the paper argues 

that metaphysical orientation provides the primordial principles that formed the basis 

for epistemology, ethics, and sociopolitical arrangement that serves as the gateway for 

development or modernization. However, in the case of Africa it is somewhat different. 

The paper employs the comparative method. 

Keywords: Metaphysics, development, Oriental, western, African 

INTRODUCTION 

The aim of this paper is to trace the metaphysical orientations of western, oriental, and 

African traditions and how they inform their development and progress. Metaphysical 

orientation is the sum total of metaphysical doctrines that form the foundational 

assumption about reality. It can be a conceptual framework or primordial principles that 

framed a people's understanding of reality. The paper is a comparative exercise that 

seeks to look at the metaphysical orientations that underline Western, Oriental, and 

African philosophy.  The paper argues the claim that metaphysical orientation provides 

the primordial principles that formed the basis for epistemology, ethics, and socio-

political arrangements that serve as the gateway for development or modernization. 

However, when it comes to Africa the case is different due to a whole web of complex 

historical and existential issues. 

Metaphysical orientation is the sum total of a people's worldviews either systematized 

or not but which underpins their fundamental assumptions about life, values, society, 

and the human person. It is an exclusive property of a people, which is rooted in their 

intellectual traditions, as thought out by their indigenous philosophers. It is the national 



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2 

philosophy of a people that predicated their collective understanding of reality. It is the 

basis for a people's ideology, corporate values, and national attitude to life. Though it is 

not fixed or essential to the very nature of a people, nonetheless, it can be a product of 

mutual borrowing from other traditions. This is why a comparative understanding of the 

metaphysical orientation of various traditions in the world, is essential for mutual 

accommodation and tolerance which is necessary for global peace. It is this end, the 

paper seeks to achieve. 

This paper shall be divided into five sections. Section one will discuss conceptual issues 

like the meaning of metaphysics and metaphysical orientation. Section two will discuss 

the metaphysical orientations of Western, Oriental, and African traditions. Section three 

will discuss their similarities and difference while section four will trace how this 

metaphysical orientation inform the development of each of this traditions. While 

section five will contain the evaluation and conclusion. 

METAPHYSICS AND METAPHYSICAL ORIENTATIONS 

Metaphysics as a systematic inquiry was first conceived by Aristotle. It was an ancient 

editor of Aristotle's works that coined the word to describe the works of Aristotle that 

deal with the study of entities that are beyond what the physical sciences are interested 

in. He called it “ta meta a physika” (Cohen, 2000). Subsequent metaphysicians follow 

that Aristotelian tradition. Nonetheless, for Aristotle, metaphysics is the study of the 

first principle of things or the science of existence in general (Singer 2005). He 

contrasted this with other sciences that study particular aspects of existence but 

metaphysics study existence from a general, comprehensive, and totalizing prism. What 

is general or totalizing in all existence is substance. As a term substance occupies a 

central position in the work of most of the great metaphysicians who came after 

Aristotle. 'Substance' he declared to be what primarily existed, and was prior to all other 

things in respect not only of existence but of explanation and of knowledge as well; that 

is to say, the explanation of anything else involved the idea of substance; knowledge of 

anything else involved knowledge of substance; the existence of everything else 

depended on the existence of substance. Therefore Metaphysics, then, is regarded by 

Aristotle as a single, comprehensive study of what is fundamental to all existence, all 

knowledge, and all explanation. It will at once be evident that different identifications 

of substance, that is, of what has this fundamental character, will yield different systems 

of metaphysics (Singer, 2005). 

From the above, metaphysical orientations is the way different metaphysical systems 

treat the question of what constituted substance, how it can be known, and how it can 

be explained. The way the west conceived substance was radically different from the 

way the oriental conceived substance, and the way the Africans conceived it. However, 

there are various metaphysical orientations such as Monism, dualism, pluralism, and 

duality (Ozumba, 2016). These various metaphysical orientations resonate both in 



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western, oriental, and African traditions but the attention of this paper is on the dominant 

orientations in these traditions. 

METAPHYSICAL ORIENTATIONS OF WESTERN, ORIENTAL, AND 

AFRICAN TRADITIONS 

Western Tradition 

In western tradition, Heraclitus and Parmenides were the first to give an account of 

Being which is the central issue of Metaphysics. The question between Heraclitus and 

Parmenides is on: what can account for existence?. In other words, what does it mean 

for a thing to be (to exist)? For Heraclitus, Being which is what characterized all 

existence is in a state of perpetual flux and it is ever-changing, ephemeral, and multiple. 

This is because at the base of being is the presence of an everlasting fire that brings 

things to be and to it, all things return. Everything moves on, he said, and nothing 

remains; the world is like a flowing stream. If we stand by the riverbank, the water we 

see beneath us is not the same two moments ago, and we cannot put our feet twice into 

the same water. So far, so good; but Heraclitus went on to say that we cannot even step 

twice into the same river. This seems false, whether taken literally or allegorically; but, 

as we shall see, the sentiment was highly influential in later Greek philosophy (Kenny 

2006, p.8). 

Contrarily, Parmenides see Being as one and fix, immutable and eternal. We cannot talk 

of Being coming into Being or going out of Being. It is illogical and absurd to talk about 

Nothing as coming to Being. Parmenides puts it this way: “What you can call and think 

must be Being, for Being can, and nothing cannot be”. This means that Being is and 

Nonbeing is not. What Parmenides is saying, in essence, is that anything that can be at 

all, must be something or other; it can be just nothing (Copleston 1946). If Being is that 

of which something or other, no matter what, is true, then Nonbeing is that of which 

nothing at all is true. That, surely, is nonsense. Not only can it not exist, but it also 

cannot even be thought of (Kenny 2006:9). From the foregone, it is clear that from 

Parmenides's perspective that Being is what 'is' and its opposite side is what is not. What 

'is' is Being which forms the content of thought and it can be related to real things in our 

experience and thinking. Therefore, to sum up, Parmenides thought we can say Being 

is undivided, unlimited, and everlasting, and there is no becoming in Being or going out 

from Being. This position runs contrary to commonsense and the way things are in our 

experience. However, subsequent western philosophers especially Plato and Aristotle, 

tried to reconcile this Parmenides's position though logical, with common sense.  

 The problem facing future philosophers was this: Common sense suggests that the 

world contains things that endure, such as the Rocky Mountains, and things that 

constantly change, such as rushing streams. On the one hand, Heraclitus had pronounced 

that at a fundamental level, even the most solid things were in perpetual flux; on the 

other hand, Parmenides had argued that even what is most apparently fleeting is, at a 

fundamental level, static and unchanging. Can the doctrines of either Heraclitus or 



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Parmenides be refuted? Is there any way in which they can be reconciled? For Plato, 

and his successors, this was a major task for philosophy to address. 

In an attempt to surmount this Parmenidean difficulty, Plato bifurcates Being into two 

via the World of Idea and the World of the Sensible. The world of ideas contains the 

forms of things and they are unchangeable, immutable, fix and eternal. The world of the 

sensible is the world of appearance which contains things that are mere copies of the 

archetype which is in the World of Idea. Being is in the World of Idea which is a kind 

of conceptual world and the particular things in the sensible world are photocopies that 

respond to the principles of differentiation, growth, death, etc., but in the Platonic 

thought, Being is in the world of idea and it cannot be grasped with the senses. In Plato's 

thinking, the Forms (meta-material) are the real while the particular things (material) in 

the sensible world are nonbeing and just mere appearance or sensuous illusions.  

Therefore, through the process of transcendental intellection (elenchus) the mind or soul 

can recollect or grasps the forms. From the above Plato places premium on the meta-

material as Being, which represents an idealist account of Being. 

Likewise, Aristotle in a bid to solve the Parmenidean difficulty dichotomize Being via 

substance and accidents. 'Substance' is the thing that can exist on its own without 

depending on any other, while, while 'accident' is the modification or property of 

substance. Even accidents possess substances because they are animated by substances. 

Substance account for the active and passive change in everything. Therefore, to account 

for change, Aristotle opines that all finite and infinite beings possess matter and form. 

The 'form' is the purpose or cause and 'matter' is the substantial material a being is made 

of. While 'form' may change, 'matter' remains. Being is substance while nonbeing is 

nothing and cannot be predicated on anything. Therefore, Aristotle places a premium 

on substantial beings. This is a kind of realist account of being. 

According to Kenny (2006), since the Renaissance, it has been traditional to regard the 

Academy and the Lyceum as two opposite poles of philosophy. Plato, according to this 

tradition, was idealistic, Utopian, other-worldly; Aristotle was realistic, utilitarian, 

commonsensical. These two traditions of platonic and Aristotelian form the 

metaphysical orientations of western metaphysics. Furthermore, these two traditions 

form what Heidegger later called traditional metaphysics which is problematic.  

According to Unah (2006), traditional western metaphysics is monistic and it reduced 

Being to The One which makes it static, fixative, and rigid, as such, it is the cause for 

all the crises in western society and other societies that the west came in contact with. 

Western metaphysical orientation has a disdain for nonbeing (nothing) as nonsensical 

and it places a premium on Being as what is. The implication is that what is is material 

and Being was reduced to beings. More, it sees Being as opposed to nonbeing because 

nothing can't come from something. Though Unah (2006) maintains that even nothing 

is something. While western metaphysical orientations are monistic in the sense that it 

places premium to the One as being, it is also dualistic in the sense that it conceived of 

two basic opposing substances as the foundation of Being. It sees reality as the 



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5 

composite of two opposing primordial entities but one is superior (active or present) and 

the other inferior (passive or absence). While Plato sees the Forms as supreme and the 

particular things as inferior, Aristotle, on the other hand, sees substantial beings as 

supreme and their accidents as inferior because everything in so far as it is a being is 

composite of matter and form. Therefore, from Aristotle moving forward, western 

traditions have adopted this materialistic orientation in all their conceptualization of 

whatever is Being. 

Oriental Metaphysical Orientations 

 There are variants of philosophical thought in oriental tradition with conflicting 

positions but in this section, I will look at Taoism which represents the metaphysical 

orientation of Chinese Philosophy. For Taoism, Tao is the only reality that exists. It is 

the ultimate reality, the source of all beings, the mystic force underlying all things and 

all happenings, both transcendent and immanent. It is the ground of being, the 

foundation of existence, a boundless self-existence, and self-manifesting, self-diffusing, 

all-pervading reality (Omoregbe, 2004). Similarly, Hinduism used the concept of 

Brahman to describe this ultimate creative principle that individuates itself in things in 

this world. According to Omoregbe (2004), Brahman is immutable, unmovable, but it 

is the dynamic source of all changes in the universe. In itself, it does not change, but its 

individuates change. Its individuations are the actualizations of its potentialities. It 

unfolds and actualizes its potentialities with the passage of time. Brahman is not an 

individual being but the Ground of all beings, including God, are actualizations. While 

Hinduism accommodates the idea of dynamism in its conceptualization of Being or the 

Ground of existence, Taoism does not accommodate the idea of dynamism in its 

understanding of the ultimate creative principle. However, both systems are predicated 

on the monist metaphysical orientations. Therefore, the metaphysical orientations of 

oriental tradition tilt towards monism. This implies that it places a premium on the One 

as the ultimate irreducible basis of Being. 

African Tradition 

  The general trait of any metaphysical system which is distinctively African is that it is 

basically integrative. To speak of integrative metaphysics or the metaphysics of 

integration, therefore, is to simply say that African metaphysics is the metaphysics of 

harmony, which in turn makes African philosophy, the philosophy of harmony (Okoro, 

2011a). Integrative metaphysics simply means the metaphysical system which regards 

spirit, force, life-force, or vital-force as the primordial principle which permeates all 

things and is responsible for unity in diversity. It is a metaphysical system that sees 

spirit (i.e. mind, idea, subject, and all things mental or spiritual) and matter (i.e. body, 

object, and all things physical) as being equi-primordial and complementary. Since for 

the African, the primary element that sustains the universe is spirit, then spirit or life 

force permeates and interpenetrates all things. 



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6 

C.S. Momoh (2000), a member of the purist school of thought, maintains that African 

metaphysics can best be defined as the "African doctrine on the spiritual". Thus for the 

African, "the concept of reality encompasses the totality of everything that exists visible 

or invisible, real, actual or potential" (p.8). And because this metaphysical system does 

not bifurcate mind from body, subject from object; because it does not separate politics 

from the economy, the economy from religion, religion from culture, culture from 

spirituality, spirituality from education, education from physical existence, physical 

existence from the totality of life; because it does not create a hiatus between theory and 

practice, action and reaction; it is referred to as an inclusive system and therefore, 

integrative. 

African metaphysical orientation is integrative and complementary in the sense that 

Being is a Binary Complementarity of the opposite i.e. there is a reciprocal relationship 

between nothing and something. This is because for African Metaphysics anything that 

exists serves as a missing link of reality (Asouzu 2004). This implies that Being is 

relational and interconnected and interpenetrating. The aim of African metaphysics is 

to harmonize all opposites by way of interfusion or integration. This system of 

metaphysics is also known as metaphysical vitalism, metaphysical symbiosis, spiritual 

primacism, or the principle of interpenetrability of forces (Okoro, 2011b). Therefore we 

can submit that African metaphysical orientations are tilt towards integration, 

complementarity, and holism. 

This implies that African metaphysical orientation recognizes the divide between the 

two primordial substances of Being and Non-being but it does not bifurcates or 

dichotomizes them, rather it sees them in mutual complementary relationship (Asouzu, 

2007; Oluwole, 2014). One cannot be grasp without the other, and their harmonious 

relation is what brings balance to nature, the world and human society. Therefore, in the 

epistemic process, there is an interplay of the subject and the object of knowledge, and 

knowledge is not only empirical but rational and intuitive (Oluwole, 2014). For African 

ethics, whatever that seeks to destroy the mutual relationship in the community is 

intrinsically bad and what promotes the harmonious relationship in the community is 

seen as good (Asuquo, 2019; Asuquo & Akerele, 2020). Politically, the African places 

more premium in consensus building, village democracy and bipartisanship (Wiredu, 

2001).   

Having given the metaphysical orientations of western, oriental and African traditions, 

I will compare the distinctive features of these traditions and how they resonate in the 

development and modernization that have occurred in these traditions. 

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE METAPHYSICAL ORIENTATIONS OF 

WESTERN, AFRICAN, AND ORIENTAL TRADITIONS  

Both oriental tradition and western tradition are absolute monists who maintain that 

Being is ultimately one (Omoregbe, 2004). In the west Parmenides see Being as one and 



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other western philosophers follow suit. It is either they are reducing Being to one 

particular substance or the other. For example, Plotinus tells us that the ultimate is the 

“One” which is absolutely transcendent, it transcends being, transcends existence, 

transcends essence, transcends thought, transcends anything we can think of. This one 

was reduced to Nous according to Anaxagoras. Likewise, Spinoza reduces this One to 

God or Nature. For Hegel and the German Idealists, it is the Absolute or Absolute Ego 

or Spirit. Therefore, to ground Being western tradition reduces it to materiality or matter 

and downplay the spiritual aspect of it. It is on this note that Okoro (2011b) describes 

classical Western metaphysical orientation as monistic and reductionistic. 

Similarly, Oriental metaphysical orientations share the same trait with the west. For the 

Orientals especially the Taoists and Hindus being is the Absolute One through which 

other beings emanates. For Taoists it is Tao, and for the Hindus it is Brahman. This 

nonmaterial posture shows that Being is essentially nonmaterial and it can give an 

account of material which is seen as a corruption of Being, just like 'nothing' is a 

corruption of Being which is 'something'. This is why oriental moves from the soul to 

matter. The sharp difference between these two is that Europe reduced the Being to what 

is and 'what is' is always 'something'. The oriental, on the other hand, reduce it to Spirit 

veiled with the concepts of Tao or Brahman. There is a need to provide a synthesis and 

that synthesis is in African Metaphysical orientation. 

Africans do not see the world as a pure rational abstraction or as mere appearances; they 

simply reproduce reality in the life-world. We define the life-world as man's native 

transcendental capacity to effectively and pragmatically synchronize the objective 

world with subjective understanding. It is the visioning of the world about us imaged in 

symbolic forms. In such a symbolic representation of the world, things are not 

compartmentalized. On the contrary, in the universe of the life-forces things are 

inclusively interconnected and interpenetrating. This explains why the African cosmos 

is said to be cyclical, hierarchical, and tripological in outlook. Chinweizu describes the 

African cosmos as one that operates the logic of "concentric circles" (Chinweizu, 2005, 

p.140). In other words, the cyclical nature of the African cosmos rotates and revolves 

on a triangular dimension otherwise known as the tripod. 

The cosmos, society, and man are said to live in a symbiotic unity. Holism is the 

appropriate word for describing the African understanding of the inter-relationship 

between the cosmos, society, and man. Each is an individual whole energized and 

interconnected to the other by spirit. Spirit as the motivating element ensures that the 

cosmos, society, and man are one intricate web, harmoniously integrated. This 

interfusion is such that the "world order is replicated in the "social order" and the "social 

order" is replicated" in the "self-order" and vice versa. Again, by way of interfusion, the 

three orders are said to be identical and hierarchical. Whereas the hierarchization of the 

forces and there are identical to nature requires that: " All forces are strengthened and 

not weakened, that an individual should be seen in the light of the whole and that 

meaning, significance, and value depend on the art of integration" (Anyanwu, 1981, p. 

371). By implication, world reorientation, social reconstruction, should begin from the 



Osuquo                  Juxtaposition Of Western, Oriental And African  

8 

enlightenment and reformation of the self, for the re-attunement of the self-order to the 

social and the cosmic orders. 

METAPHYSICAL ORIENTATIONS AS THE FIRST STAGE OF A PEOPLE 

DEVELOPMENT: WESTERN, ORIENTAL, AND AFRICAN TRADITION 

Metaphysics as we discover in the preceding part of our discourse is the ground for all 

studies because it investigates the first principle of Being. This means that the way 

people understand themselves is predicated on their metaphysical orientations, and the 

thought systems they have cumulatively built over time which forms the foundation to 

assert their development whether it is science, technology, or their sociopolitical 

arrangement. It is on this note, we will explore how the metaphysical orientations of 

western and African traditions inform their socioeconomic and political development. 

As has been established in the previous section that western metaphysical orientations 

are tilt towards monism or strict dualism whereby one aspect of being is abstracted and 

elevated to an absolute pedestal. We see this in those metaphysical systems that place a 

premium on an aspect of Being and elevated it to Being and the other aspect is seen as 

nonbeing. In the west it is either they uphold materiality over and beyond 

metamateriality or the other way round. As such they have built their economic, 

political, social, and educational foundations on the aspect of being they have so 

identified. Historically, the west has moved in priding an aspect of Being as Being. The 

elevation of the rational substance of giving rise to the idea of individual substances 

either as atoms or monads. This rational substance must collude for something to come 

into being. It is on this note that Aristotle sees the individual human person as a rational 

animal because metaphysically, the individual human being is a rational individual 

substance. Therefore, for society to be possible the individual is seen as a political 

animal which due to his instinct of self-preservation he must necessarily live with other 

human beings. This Aristotelian metaphysics underlines the trajectories of western 

society and philosophy. On the economic front, Western society has moved from 

primitive communalism to feudalism and today to Capitalism. More so, in the 

sociopolitical front western society has moved from absolute monarchy to aristocracy 

and to democracy. The way they conceive being informed the kind of society they have 

constructed over time, and the nature of their values, norms, and attitude to life.  

Contemporary western society is individualistic in outlook and it reflects in their 

sociopolitical and economic systems like liberal democracy, free-market economy and 

it at the same time prioritized political rights over economic rights. 

Similarly, Oriental metaphysical orientations is tilt towards strict monism whereby 

being is one without any other. It is either it is being or nonbeing, or if it is nonbeing it 

is nothing which means it cannot command existence. Hence, everything is reduced to 

the One. According to Hegel's account of history, this One resonates in the Oriental 

leadership as the Absolute. This is why the oriental place's premium on the collective 

as the One and everything is understood and interpreted from this One. The implication 



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is that Oriental society emphasizes the supremacy of the one they have identified. On 

the sociopolitical front, this osne can be the State or the Empire or the collective. This 

is why in China the State as the One is central in all things and in the activities of the 

people. Hence, the oriental values such system as State capitalism, consultative 

democracy, and prioritization of economic rights over political rights.   

CONCLUSION 

In this paper, we highlight the meaning of metaphysics and metaphysical orientations. 

Metaphysics is an inquiry into the foundation of being as being. It investigates the first 

principle that constituted being or existence by looking at their causes, nature, and 

categories. On the other hand, metaphysical orientation is the primordial principle that 

captures the substantial form of a people understanding of reality. Metaphysical 

orientation is at the core of how people understand nature which forms the basis of their 

epistemology, ethics, and sociopolitical organization. It is on this note, the paper trace 

the metaphysical orientation of the West, Oriental, and African traditions and how it 

informs their epistemology, ethics, and sociopolitical arrangement. The paper maintains 

that while the metaphysical orientation of the West and Oriental serves as the basis of 

their development, such cannot be said for Africa due to existential and historical forces 

that are playing out in Africa. Some of these existential and historical forces include 

imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism and globalization. 

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